Performance of Sdssu in the Licensure Examination for Teachers Essay

Introduction High percentage of LET passers contributes greatly to the accreditation of education programs of a certain college or university. This, aside from adding zest within the vicinity of school academe, is the reason why schools offering education courses crave for high percentage of LET passers (Philippine Journal of Education, 2005). Today, prospective teachers must clear a series of hurdles to obtain and maintain a teaching certificate – one of which is to pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers (Libman, 2009). States use licensing to ensure that the only qualified teachers can be hired. This builds anxiety not only among examinees but more so far schools who turn out prospective teachers with different majors. Obviously, the National examination for teachers stirs competitive against, since it augurs possible employment, salary or appointment upgrading ranking consideration, and acceptance to the halls of DECS. In addition, implications permeate school standards and pride for garnering honors from percentage passers (Philippine Journal of Education, 2005). The performance scores in the Licensure Examinations for Teachers reflect the abilities of the teacher examinees. Thus, having low percentage of LET passers indicates low quality pre-service teacher education in the country (Ramota, 2011). Palatino, who is a young education graduate from the University of the Philippines, feared that poor performance in LET may lead to further slide of the educational standards of the educational standards of our country. If this alarming trend will not be aided, he said, the country will be seeing more classrooms with no teachers in our schools despite an oversupply of teacher education graduates who end jobless or else volunteer teachers in remote areas (Ramota, 2011). Performance of education graduates in the Licensure Examinations for Teachers predetermine not only the competence of the graduates but so as the institutions where they have acquired their diplomas. This serves as the major key in accrediting education programs. Having low percentage of LET passers may lead to changing of educational programs or worse, closing of the educational programs. Hence, the researchers conduct this study to find the relationship between the students LET performance and standard and competence of the said institution. Moreover, to develop an intervention program that would help obtain standard results in the LET. Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework This paper is anchored on Joe Wholey’s model of program evaluation (1987) and the Education Conceptual Model. Like systems and organizational theories, Wholey’s model of program evaluation describes the characteristics of faculty and students and the extent to which curricular activities and fiscal resources influence the educational process and subsequent effectiveness in goal attainment. Wholey defines a program as a set of resources and activities directed toward one or more goals. The linkage of resource expenditures, program activities, immediate outcomes, and ultimate goals directly relates to SDSSU and its program’s performance on the Licensure examination for Teachers. If SDSSU program resources are available, then qualified faculty will be recruited and retained to provide the necessary curricular instruction and learning activities. Given the appropriate faculty to develop and implement the curriculum and activities, students will be provided an opportu nity to develop the required knowledge, skills, and behaviors appropriate for entry-level practice as teacher practitioners. If the appropriate curriculum and activities are implemented, then graduates will demonstrate the desired outcomes expected at the entry level for Licensure tests. If these learning activities and outcomes occur, then progress will be made toward the SDSSU program goals and the ultimate goal of the teaching profession. The ultimate goal of College of Teacher Education programs is to provide competent teachers imbued with ethical values and ideals in a humane environment supportive to the national thrust for social transformation. Four teacher education program components with key predictor variables for each are identified. First, program resources (total program expenditures) must be adequate to ensure the achievement of the learning goals and outcomes. Second, there must be sufficient faculty (student-to-faculty ratio) with the necessary qualifications (degrees earned, teaching experience) to influence program processes and outcomes. Third, the curriculum (didactic, laboratory, and professional practice hours; comprehensive examination) must support the entry-level competencies of professional practice and the achievement of learning goals and outcomes. Fourth, in order to graduate and enter professional practice, students (mean cumulative college GPA on admission) must be evaluated on the ability to demonstrate competencies measured on the Licensure Examination for Teachers. Taking and passing the LET is the ticket to enter teaching profession which is the desire result of education students. Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) is the professional board examination given by Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) to determine who are to be allowed to teach and who are not (http://eduphil.org/how-to-pass-the-licensure-examination-for-teachers-let.html).LET performances in terms of passing scores are often perceived as the scale in measuring the quality of education of schools offering teacher education. According to Daniel Goldhaber (2012) University of Washington researcher, â€Å"licensure test performance is clearly not a silver bullet. Licensing tests are usually paper and pencil tests of subject matter knowledge and on occasion, pedagogical knowledge.† Multiple researches having the same findings as his, argues for a much more comprehensive system for assessing teachers to determine their preparedness to enter the classroom as sole pract itioners (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2012). Schematic Diagram Basis for an intervention program. Basis for an intervention program. Level of accreditation of teacher education programs. Relationship of LET performance and level of accreditation in teacher education. Level of accreditation of teacher education programs. Relationship of LET performance and level of accreditation in teacher education. SDSSU performance in terms of passing percentage in Licensure Examination for Teachers SDSSU performance in terms of passing percentage in Licensure Examination for Teachers Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of the study. The first table shows the profile of SDSSU in terms of their performance in LET. The second table shows the accredited education programs of SDSSU and their levels of accreditation. The third table shows the basis for an inspired LET performance. Statement of the Problem The researcher seeks to study the performance of SDSSU in the Licensure Examinations for Teachers. Specifically, the researcher would like to find out the following: 1. What is the performance of SDSSU in terms of passing percentage in Licensure Examination for Teachers? 2. What is the level of accreditation of teacher education programs in Surigao del Sur State University? 3. Is there a significant relationship between students LET performance and the level of accreditation of Surigao del Sur State University campuses? 4. What are the problems met in the teacher education programs to attain the better LET performance in pursuit for quality education? 5. What intervention program shall be crafted based on the findings of the study? Null Hypothesis Ho1: There is no significant relationship between the LET performance of the teacher education graduates and the level of accreditation in the teacher education programs. Significance of the study The following individuals are deemed to benefit largely on this study. School administrators. This paper would help the school administrators to become more motivated in administering better curriculum and courses that are relevant in achieving high passing percentage in LET. This would lead to the improvement of standards of the institutions. Faculty. This paper would remind them that their part as faculty is very crucial and relevant in moulding new generations of would-be-teachers. This would encourage them to always do their job honestly, sincerely, and passionately and to redesign their teaching strategies, if needed, in order for them to facilitate maximum learning effectiveness and produce highly competent and surely LET passer students. Students. This paper would help them realize their role as an important aspect in acquiring competence and standards of their institutions. Thus, would drive them to do well in their studies in order for them to bring pride and happiness to their college or universities. Community. If the individuals aforementioned would be able to realize the importance of their roles in developing a more equipped, qualified, and reliable who would benefit most. Scope and limitation This study focuses on the performance of teacher education graduates of SDSSU in the Licensure Examination for Teachers. It will be conducted at SDSSU during the second semester of school year 2012-2013. The monitoring is to be administered to the five campuses of SDSSU namely: Cantilan, Lianga, San Miguel, Tagbina, and Tandag campuses. Definition of terms The terminologies used in this study are defined operationally. Accreditation. Accreditation is a process in which certification of competency, authority, or credibility is presented. Organizations that issue credentials or certify third parties against official standards are themselves formally accredited by accreditation bodies (such as PRC); hence they are sometimes known as â€Å"accredited certification bodies†. The accreditation process ensures that their certification practices are acceptable, typically meaning that they are competent to test and certify third parties, behave ethically and employ suitable quality assurance. Competence. Competence refers to the quality of being well qualified. It is the quality of having great facility and being able to perform and facilitate achievement or accomplishment. Education. Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people sustain from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts. It is the formal process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, customs and values from one generation to another, e.g. instruction in schools. Institution. An institution is any structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation governing the behaviour of a set of individuals within a given human community. Institutions are identified with a social purpose, transcending individual human lives and intention by mediating the rules that govern cooperative human behaviour. The term â€Å"institution† is commonly applied to customs and behaviour patterns important to a society, as well as to particular formal organizations of government and public services. Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). Licensure Examination for Regulation Commission (PRC) to determine who should be allowed to teach schools in the Philippines. Performance. Refers to the accomplishment of a given task measured against present known standards of accuracy, completeness, cost, and speed. In a contract, performance is deemed to be the fulfilment of an obligation, in a manner that releases the performer from all liabilities under the contract. Profile. Is a brief description of the characteristics of something, where in my study, are the characteristics of Surigao Del Sur State University main campus in terms of their percentage of LET passers and the accreditation levels of the different education programs that they are offering. Student. A student is a learner, or someone who attends an educational institution. In its widest use, student is used for anyone who is learning. Chapter II RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE Effective Teachers are what each classroom needs. But what makes a teacher effective? How can we identify effective teachers from those who are not? Are licensure examinations enough to assess the quality of teachers? Passing the licensure examination is often perceive as an indicator of qualified and effective teachers. But according to the researchers from the Southeast Centre for Teaching Quality (2003c), licensure examinations are not enough to measure the competence among teacher candidates. They concluded that in order to assess competence among teacher candidates, multiple methods should be used. This should include student work samples and the demonstration of new knowledge and skills known to reflect the core competences of highly qualified beginning teachers. This thoughts gained support from a study commissioned by the National Research Council (2001), the role of licensure tests in improving teacher quality, as cited in the study of Wilkerson and Lang (2004) concluding th at even a set of well-designed tests is inadequate to measure all of the prerequisites for a competent beginning teacher. The researcher of the National Research Council also recommended that states use multiple forms of evidence in making decisions about teacher candidates and use licensure tests only as a part of a coherent developmental system of preparation assessment, and support that reflects the many features of teacher competence. Addressing some of the issues on teacher effectiveness is through a voluntary certification process, which has been offered by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). This is a certification process where teachers who are considered to be highly effective can demonstrate, and gain recognition for, their knowledge and teaching skills. And despite a lack of evidence on its efficacy in identifying effective teachers, there has been a continuous growing participation in the NBPTS. Many policymakers in various states and school districts also view this certification as a signal of teacher quality. In fact, NBPTS certified teachers receive recognitions and financial incentives (Goldhaber and Anthony 2004). Citing evidence, Goldhaber of the University of Washington and Urban Institute so with Anthony of Urban Institute describe the result of the first large-scale study, based on a unique data set from North Carolina, assessing the relationship between certification of teachers by National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) and Elementary-level student achievement. Findings indicated that NBPTS is successfully identifying the more effective teachers among applicants, and that NBPTS-certified teachers, prior to becoming certified, were more effective than their non-certified counterparts at increasing student achievement (Goldhaber and Anthony 2004). In the middle of these findings, the American Educational Research Association Panel concluded, based on the available evidences they have analyzed, that licensure in the field gained by university-based teacher preparation is an indicator of effective teaching and student achievement. Before getting to taking licensure exams and applying for certifications, teachers-to-be first have to finish education courses and undergo teacher preparation. Most of those who wanted to be effective teachers prefer to study at state colleges and universities having passed the National Accreditations since it is perceive that nationally accredited state colleges and universities caters teacher education programs that are capable of moulding and producing effective teachers. Many education graduates in the provinces are not passing the LET (Ramota 2011). Palatino, as cited in Ramota (2011), opined that LET examinees performance shows the low quality of pre-service Teacher Education in the country. He stated that many Teacher Education institutions are producing half-baked graduates who add up to the bulk of the LET non- passers and unemployed or under employed Teachers. He also stated that even these schools are being turn into mere for profit diploma mills rather than as training ground for future mentors. When Colleges of Education seek National Accreditation for their teacher education programs, there are a variety of obstacles to their success. But according to Adams (2004), not all of these obstacles are a reflection of program quality since accrediting bodies at the national or state level have different and at times conflicting requirements. This could even be more damaging. Evaluation systems may be scheduled to be phased in too rapidly, without clear guidelines. It is likely that the programs they are evaluating will be forced to suffer the consequences of this management. This situation is a contributing factor in the undeserved negative perceptions of teacher education programs. Though colleges of education should be accountable for the quality of the teachers they produce, the accrediting agencies should be accountable for the clarity and straightforwardness of the process. Whether a teacher candidate will be effectively teaching or not depends on the teacher preparations he or she had. The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (2012) stressed to components that are critically important in the teacher preparation: the teacher knowledge of the subject to be taught, and the knowledge and skills on how to teach that subject. Research and common sense tell us that subject matter knowledge is necessary for effective teaching. But there is a second part of the equation: knowledge and skills on how to teach is also a must. Effective teachers understand and are able to apply strategies to help students increase achievements. They understand and apply knowledge of child and adolescent development to motivate and engage students. They are able to diagnose individual learning needs. They know how to develop a positive climate in the classroom in order to make it a stimulating learning environment. The scholars of the National Academy of Education of America also supports that content knowledge does not adequately prepared teachers for the challenges they will faced in today’s classrooms, where teachers need to be prepared for learning differences and dis abilities that are prevalent (). Moreover, and American Educational Research Association Panel of nationally recognized scholars analyzed the empirical e vidence relevant to practices and policies in pre-service teacher Education in the US. Findings specific to education programs that produce successful teachers include: (1) collaborative arrangements between university programs and local school districts—known as professional development schools (PDSs)—have a positive impact on k-12 students in measurable ways such as increase in standardized test scores; (2) planned, guided and sustained interactions with pupils within early field and student teaching settings is important; (3) seven of eight studies reviewed found positive correlations between licensure and student achievement, especially in mathematics education (). These ideas stated above only proves that the quality of schools, the instructors of the teacher education programs, so with the educations programs, plays a very critical role in the education process since they are the one who mould the aspiring educators to be globally competitive and effective teachers. Gradual learning is very important for any student, be it in any field. But there are many more things in a student’s brain that we often forget, and herein appears the difficulty. There are students who faced learning problems and it’s not even their fault. For a school student, life is loaded with studies. Though it is not possible for each one of them to cope up with their studies, they often get nervous, frustrated and ends up mugging their lesson which is very harmful. There can be factors, as many as every student in this world, that affect student achievements. According to Shahin (2012), the student’s community is affected by lots of problems such us lack of quality of education, the threat of unemployment, absence of adequate opportunities, nepotism and a host of many such factors disheartening the students. She added that the lack of proper guidance by the parents and unawareness of the student in choosing the right career lead to their doom. Similarly, Suvajit (2009) believes that all these predicaments faced by students can only be resolve if every school and college recruits a qualified students councillor to guide the students in times of their problems. He cited recession as an example since it has caused huge dearth of jobs enabling the students to avail their desired job. And so, many of these students go on for further studies but are often puzzled about which course to study and from which college. And because of the lack of proper guidance, they often take hasty decisions for which they have to repent later. While Koski and Weis (2004) called on the state to analyse its own contents standards and curriculum frameworks to develop a complete basket of educational resources, ranging from laboratory equipment and sophisticated measuring instruments to well- stocked libraries and media centres, and conditions that all children should have an opportunity to achieve the state’s standards. But there have been a proposal cited by The Journal Report: Big Issues in Education of US (2012). The proposal stated that all (US) children should meet the same academic standards, essentially proposing a nationalized system of education. This issue gathered contrasting ideas of some influential educators in US including Chester E. Finn Jr., president of the Thomas B. Fordham institute and chairman of the Hoover Institution’s Koret Task Force on K to 12 Education, who argues in favour of national standards, and Jay Greene, head of the department of education reform at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville, Ark, who makes the case against natio nal standards. According to Finn Jr., as cited in a journal community The Journal Report: Big Issues in Education of US (2012), one way to ensure that young people would develop the skills they need to compete globally is to set clear standards about what schools should teach and students should learn—and make these standards uniform across the country. He stated that the issues plaguing American education—low achievement, poor technical skills, too many dropouts, etc.—are nationwide, and so is the challenge of economic competitiveness and that these were caused by the disorderly, dysfunctional way of handling academic standards for students. Though Finn Jr. believed that an effective education system also requires quality teachers, effective administrators and other vital elements, make them the same everywhere is important. A rigorous national standard is a need for a mobile society like theirs where a fourth-grader in Portland, Maine, may find herself a fifth grader in Portland, Ore. He also added that United States of America is no longer a country where children born in rural areas spend their entire lives there. They need and are expected to be ready for jobs in other parts of the land. And they won’t have any problem in adjusting to their lesson since every school is following a national standard (The Jou rnal Report: Big Issues in Education of US, 2012). On the other hand, Greene as also cited in a journal community The Journal Report: Big Issues in Education of US (2012) contended that different youngsters need to learn different things in different ways. He stated that such uniformity would only make sense if: 1) there was a single best way for all student to learn; 2) we knew what it was; 3) we could be sure the people running this nationalized education system would adapt that correct approach; and 4) they would remain in charge far into the future. But this isn’t how things are. He believed that there is no consensus on what all student need to know and that different students can best be taught and assessed in different ways. Greene then cited Canada and Australia as examples of large and diverse country like US with significantly stronger students’ performance as measured on international test. Yet neither have national standards, tests or curricula and added Greece and Thailand as examples of lower achieving countries though they have national standards and curricula (The Journal Report: Big Issues in Education of US, 2012). Libman (2006) also cited some negative consequences of standards-based testing such as narrowing the diversities in teacher education programs, homogenizing the characteristics of the teaching force, which hinder candidates from entering teaching and causing shortages in qualified teachers. Chapter III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY * This chapter presents research methods employed in this study. It contains the research designs, sampling techniques, research environment, validation of instruments and statistical tools used. * Research Design * This study will utilize the descriptive survey method using researcher made questionnaire as a main tool in gathering the data. It will also utilize documentary analysis to verify the data gathered from the survey. Sampling Technique This paper shall utilize the universality of Teacher Education graduates during the past three school years. It will also consider the total population for the faculty and administration under the education program. For the student respondents, a 30% student shall be utilized using Stratified Random Sampling. Instrumentation This study will utilize a researcher-made instrument which will be subjected through content validation. It shall be tried out in the private tertiary education offering teacher education program. The items which are vague need revision to suit to the levels of respondents. When the validated instruments are ready, it shall be administered to the SDSSU having Teacher Education programs offering. Data Gathering Procedure A permit to conduct the study shall be secured from the university president, and shall be furnished to the campus directors and concerned respondents and the campus offering Teacher Education programs. the pursuance of this study, the researcher will use researcher-made questionnaires that would show the relativity of the data subject to this study. The questionnaire shall be administered personally by the researchers to ensure the reliability of data of this study. After administration of questionnaire, it shall be retrieved, tallied, analyzed and interpreted and ready for writing the research report.

Analysis of Class, Status and Power Essay

Karl Marx and Max Weber are among the famous theorist who formed the pillar of the study of society. This come about in their contradict theories the conflict and protestant ethic respectively. It is understood that these two people lived in different eras, Marx being exposed to conditions and perspectives of the eighteen century whilst Weber dwells in the nineteen century where noticeable changes on the fast emergence of innovative technology, and a path where modernity take its toll (the industrial revolution) (Tui, 2014). The theories of Marx and Weber were applicable in their times with regards to the type, functions and interactions existing within society. As follows is the discussion of their main arguments on the contrary of their perspectives on the basis of society. According to Karl Marx, society of all hitherto is the result of social stratification and conflict. The organized economic activities and mode of production, determined the division of labor which causes the fo rmation of two classes, the bourgeoisies and the proletariat (the rich and the poor) showing opposition (antagonistic interaction). The proletariat (working class) controlled the modes of production while the bourgeois owned the means of production (Brym & Lie, 2007). The conflict theory by Marx, argued that a position in a productive system is the basis of peoples conflict. The rich attained privilege of accessing revenue and surplus whilst the poor did not resist, but remained subordinate. The bourgeois also maintained their interest by suppressing and maintaining the subordination of the proletariat (Worsley, et al., 1970). A revolution originated on the fact that men realized how capitalism deprives them of self-independence and freedom. Capitalism also increased inequality within society and enhanced further subordination of the working class. Marx believed that in the future there will be classless societies ( (Worsley, et al., 1970)). Therefore modern society is the result of the breakdown of the feudal system; the proletariats were being absorbed by the bourgeois to work in their factory, hence bringing s ociety to the end of communism (Tui, 2014). But also a classless society still experienced antagonistic, a trend of dependency between these two class, that is the bourgeois depend on the manual labor and productivity of the proletariat and vice versa, for their stability and co-existence. In contrast, Weber, in his theory, the protestant ethics, believed in hard work, personal achievement and motivations. It focuses on  individual actions and most importantly an individual’s knowledge and skills to bring about transformation of new society. In other words people consciously making decision at important times or junctures (Tui, 2014). People whom abided to protestant ethics and maintain the spirit of capitalism succeeded economically. He emphasized the importance of the growth of the service sector of the economy, with its many non-manual workers and professionals. He also articulated that capitalist development was not just caused by favorable economic conditions but religious beliefs also plays an important role (aw areness to the society of values and virtues: right and wrong) of facilitating great capitalist growth. He argued that Marx, fails to see that people in society can improve their condition in terms of education, technology to attain a better standard of living. Weber, also showed the flaws of the Conflict theory whereby he said that a revolution is not necessarily the solution to dissatisfaction and grievances. There are medium of resolving matters peacefully whereby the government is required to improve such conditions (Weber, 2005). In light of the above arguments, there is also controversy and contradiction in their discussion of class (created by eligibility and accessing to product of economy), status (social honor or professional position) and power (the ability and opportunity to control) (Worsley, et al., 1970). According to Marx, in society, there are two distinct classes: the bourgeois and the proletariat. These classes were inherited and there is nothing that can be done apart from revolution that can make the differences. The revolution would result in a classless society w here the state come to own the means of production. According to Marx, whoever has a class will have a complimentary standard of status and power. For him class is the originator of all kinds of status in society and source of power. He also stated that traditional status ascribed was used to acquire power such as the members of the noble family were born and entitled to rule. This class of nobles subsequently has high social status (Brym & Lie, 2007). Weber strongly argued that class, status and power were three totally different categories. Status and power were achieved through ones commitment and successes. It favored the concept of meritocracy which allows people to rise or fall to a position that matches their talent and efforts ( (Brym & Lie, 2007)). All of these were independent of each other. It is not necessary of an individual  or group of people in high class to have a corresponding level(s) of status and power. In general, class is directly related to how people have access to part of the society’s resources. Class should be related to your ability to buy power or your market position (Tui, 2014). Such as a proletariat can become a very important figure in government just because of his/her qualification, oratory skills and achievement. For example a Chief Executive Officer (CEO), commissioner of police, captain. These people worked their way like every proletariat from scratch and because of their ambition and hard work they are able to become successful, even though they do not have a royal or ruling background After having compared the two theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber, the latter theory of protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism by Max Weber is considered the best and useful theory to understand and explain the dynamics of my local society. Kiribati society is an example of an egalitarian society whereby people are equal and have the same rights and opportunities. The decision making process and access to government’s resources and all opportunities are carried out following established processes and procedures. Everyone is given a chance to talk for themselves or by a representative (Teitiniman, 1993). As mentioned earlier, access to opportunities are open to everyone such as position in government and non-government organization through advertisement. Eligible candidates announced and a screening test is conducted to screen out best candidates. It takes one’s effort, hardship and commitment towards professional development in order to improve life conditioning, status and attainment of power for example people acquiring scholarship for higher qualification and to qualify a higher post with high salary in the government institution (Itaia, 1979). According to Koae (1993) and agreed by Macdonald (2001) there are existing mediums of solving any grievance and dissatisfaction. These are put up in writing to the concerned department and or are taken up to court. Communities’ views and perspectives are considered as a means of improvement to policing strategies such as that adopted by the Kiribati Police Services. Elections of leaders are conducted on the basis of the public vote towards candidates (Brechtefeld, 1993). As Weber highlighted, class, status and power are achieved which is correspondingly true of my Kiribati society.  Peoples’ hard work irrespective of religious beliefs and traditional social cl ass and status, have equal and equitable access to opportunities which determine social and economic standings in my society. Bibliography Brechtefeld, N., 1993. The Electoral System. In: H. V. Trease, ed. Atoll Politics. Christchurch: Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, pp. 43, 44, 45. Brym, R. J. & Lie, J., 2007. Sociology Your Compass for a New World. third ed. California: Thomson Wadsworth. Itaia, M., 1979. Rebirth Te Mauri, Te Raoi, ao Te Tabomoa. In: KIRIBATI Aspects of History. Suva: Institutes of Pacific Studies, The University of the South Pacific, pp. 123,124. Koae, T., 1993. Corrupt and Illegal Electoral Practices. In: H. V. Trease, ed. Atoll Politics. Christchurch: Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, pp. 105-110. Macdonald, B., 2001. Cinderellas of the Empire. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, The University of the South Pacific. Teitiniman, T., 1993. Serving the People. In: H. V. Trease, ed. Atoll Politics. Christchurch: Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, pp. 343, 344, 345. Tui, R., 2014. Social Structures in Modern/Contemporary Societies. Suva: s.n. Weber, M., 2005. The Protestan t Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism. New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library,. Worsley, P. et al., 1970. INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY. 1 ed. Victoria: Penguin Education.

Harold Lasswell Essay

Harold Lasswell. political scientist. defines political relations as a power battle about â€Å"who gets what. when. and how. † David Easton defines political relations as an allotment of resources. David Easton defines political relations as the â€Å"authoritative allotment of values or scarce resources. † These resources are divided in three general types. Describe these types. The three resources are: 1. Political resources: This resource refers to the country’s power. prestigiousness. and position. backed by their military power. They are called scarce resources because they are looked at in the hierarchal agreement in the universe order. 2. Economic resources: This resource includes the state’s fiscal resources ( wealth. one-year national income. supply of capital. and investing chances ) . industrial and agricultural production. and natural resources ( oil. coal. H2O. and mineral resources ) . These are besides scarce resources every bit good such as Oil and Water. We must see we can make without Oil but non Water. It is possible we might see H2O wars probably in the twenty-first century. 3. Social and cultural resources: This resource is related. non straight. to the planetary battle for power ( The battle to vie for and make laterality in an organisation. a province. a part of the universe. or the whole universe ) . Unlike the other two resources. these resources are scarce and unevenly distributed around the Earth. As if you were a policy determination shaper. urge to your President which of these resources the authorities should concentrate on geting. As a policy determination shaper. I would urge to my President to use all three resources. I truly believe I would state the President to be more accountable with all the resources. I would urge to our President to take the Economic resource foremost. I chose this first because of our state is confronting at this minute are enormous adversities. Because we did non acquire ourselves in this state of affairs. we are confronting what the old President’s determination and we are cleaning up now. Discourse how you can accomplish the maximal allotment for the resources you choose. I truly believe that I would hold done by taxing all like the President has. I would besides give back like he has done by giving back 5 % of his income. All the Congress would hold to give back 5 % of their income. I would cut back on the costs of entertaining that goes on within the White House. The travelling costs and the entertaining would hold to equilibrate each other out. The 2nd that I would take Education and occupations every bit good as health care is my following end. I would do certain the Veterans and the Seniors every bit good as the people who are disable.

Critically Analyse an Identified Public Health Strategy or Campaign Assignment

Critically Analyse an Identified Public Health Strategy or Campaign - Assignment Example Again, due to the need to decentralize the effective advancement of sexual and reproductive health, countries including the United Kingdom have set up several localized sexual health projects. One of such is found in Solihull. With a population of 94,753, Solihull is faced with a number of sexual and reproductive health issues including high sexually transmitted infection rate and high rate of unplanned conception. As it is commonly said, if you do not know where you are going, any road takes you there. This means that for major project such as the sexual and repreoductive health program of Solihull, it is important to have a strategic agenda that guides the implementation of the project. It is in light of this that the Solihull Sexual Health Strategic Plan 2008 – 2013 has been designed as a policy context for dealing with the many issues of sexual and reproductive health that confront Solihull. The population of Solihull suffers from three major sexual and reproductive health needs, which form the basis for the sexual and health strategic plan 2008 to 2013. The first of these has to do with a sudden high rate of teenage conception in the last 3 years. It has been observed that unlike what existed earlier where the national rates of teenage conception for England was higher than what existed in Solihull, there has been a sudden turn around whereby the teenage conception rates have gone higher within the population than what existed before (Wanless, 2004). Even though the rates are currently not above the national rates, they remain higher than they were before. In the graph below, the rate of teenage pregnancy in women aged 15 to 17 in 2009 and 2011 are compared between England and Solihull. From the graph, it can be seen that the rate of teenage pregnancy and for that matter unplanned conception in Solihull keeps increasing with increasing national rates. The second sexual health need that confronts the region has to

Business Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Business Economics - Essay Example The insurance company works this ways: â€Å"The insurance company collects premiums from policy holders, invests the money (usually in low risk investments), and then reimburses this money once the person passes away or the policy matures† (Investopedia ULC). â€Å"In the U.S., the  Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 legislated that banks, brokerages, insurance firms and other types of financial institutions can join together to offer their customers a more complete range of services† and this has lead to a lot of mergers and acquisition† (Investopedia ULC). The Life Insurance Business of Prudential operates under the umbrella organization Prudential Financial Inc which is listed under the New York Stock Exchange. Prudential Financial Inc started with the life insurance and asset management business with a clientele of approximately 50 million individuals (Prudential Financial Inc, 2009). Its insurance business covers life insurance, annuities, long-term care insurance and Auto, Home, RV, Watercraft and Personal Liability Insurance. Prudential life insurance creates value through offering wide range of insurance that fits each individual. The delivery of insurance is designed to fit the specific need of the person. Examples of these are the varieties of life insurance of Prudential Life such as for wealth preservation and long-term death benefit. The company has its office in New Jersey and other states all-over the country. There are several factors that can affect the demand. Normally, textbooks would mention prices, income, taste, number of buyers, prices of related goods (whether substitute or complement) and expectations (whether on future prices or future income) (Mankiw, 1998). In this paper, we are going to discuss at least four – prices, income, number of buyers and expected future prices. Price change is the

Valuing a start up business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Valuing a start up business - Essay Example History forms a very good foundation in evaluating and valuing a business. However, young companies have little or no history; many have only one or two years of data available on operations and financing (Audretsch & Link, 2012). This unavailability of data further compounds the valuation of a start up since data forms the major building block of any business valuation. The amount of data accumulated from the start-up business dictates the ease with which the business can be valued. This means that the duration that a start-up has taken is very important in assessing its value. If a business has existed for quite long it becomes easy to value it as opposed to shortly existed business. Nonetheless, there are a number of alternative approaches that can be used in valuing a start-up business depending on the business in question. Selection of the approach is based on the nature of the business and the market. One of such approach is valuing cash flow from existing businesses. In this approach the cash flow of already established business is evaluated. This will help know the expected return of the business and payback time of the business (Schell & Tyson, 2012). The cash flows of any business is examined using its present, future values and interests. Various ways of measuring cash flows are employed in order to analyze financial instruments like loans, bonds, and dividends. These ways of measuring cash flows are Internal Rate of Return, Net Present Value, Annuities and Perpetuities. They are called time value of money techniques. Perpetuities-These are annuities which last forever under assumption. This means that when valuing company the dividend is considered as a perpetuity. These cash flows grow uniformly throughout the time. Net Present Value- this involves evaluating unequal cash flows, both positive and negative. A time value of money technique can be used in this case to generate the present value of future cash flows. This

Health Promotion at Tackling Coronary Health Disease Essay - 1

Health Promotion at Tackling Coronary Health Disease - Essay Example The study findings thus reveal that to reduce the risk of CHD, it is essential for the women to lead a healthy lifestyle with proper diet and involve in various physical activities. It is usually found that the South Asian women in the UK are less exposed to physical activities due to various socio-cultural barriers, and most of them are unaware of CHD and its consequences along with the preventive measures. The governments of UK are implementing effective policies and strategies to reduce CHD among the South Asian women. However, more cooperation is required from the government and the healthcare authorities in creating awareness among these sections of the country. Â  Conclusion: The literature review helped to conclude that the UK Government has been, to a great extent, successful in implementing effective health promotion techniques to prevent CHD among South Asian women in the UK. Through the health promotion techniques, the government has been creating awareness, educating the South Asian women regarding the health hazards of CHD and trying to reduce the risk factors associated with the identified issue. The government is also promoting various physical activities and a healthy diet among South Asian women that would reduce the risk of CHD among this population in the UK. The data further revealed that there has been a successful response to the health preventive techniques and measures in tackling CHD in the UK. Moreover, the cultural-based initiatives employed by the government and other organizations have to a larger extent been more effective than the educational programmes. Â  

Arts and Heritage Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Arts and Heritage Marketing - Essay Example Located at the pulsating heart of London, the Tate Britain happens to be an art gallery exhibiting some of the finest collections of British artifacts and paintings. The main gallery, which is a part of the Tate gallery network in Britain, houses several channels that oversee the branding of contemporary art with music. Works of some of the most notable poets, artists and musicians of the present generation, including William Blake, Sonia Boyce, Damien Hirst, Cornelia Parker, Mark Dion, Tracey Emin, Bruce Nauman, and Jeffrey Lewis, are showcased at the gallery. Antique English art and global contemporary art have been put on display in the Gallery with due importance attached to their careful preservation (Tate Britain n. d.). The first segment of this report is going to provide a SWOT analysis of the internal strengths and weaknesses of the Tate Britain, followed by a close scrutiny of the outside scopes of further development and possible difficulties in functional integrity. The analysis will be made to key out a few target markets to which the products of the Gallery may be sold. The second part of the report will document the marketing action plan by incorporating the basic marketing strategies and relating them to the outcomes of the SWOT analysis. Recommendations for improvement will be made keeping in mind the budgetary constraints of marketing. The idea of value-based branding may be looked into for drawing out a prospective marketing strategy for the Tate Gallery. As an art and heritage museum that has been serving the interest of a very select group of art collectors and lovers for a long time, the Tate Gallery essentially has a unique selling proposition only in terms of the intrinsic values of its collections. The concept of cross-cultural branding comes in contention as well as this art house has in its repertoire not just the indigenous British artifacts, but also many works of art from other cultures around Europe. In a

Hoarding Disorder Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hoarding Disorder - Research Paper Example In comparison, OCD has a lifetime prevalence of 1% to 2% of the American population. Between 25% to 30% of patients with OCD meet medical hoarding disorder criteria (Brauer et al., 2011). Two key treatment options exist for hoarding disorder: medication and CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy). Medication is often the first line of cure even when the clinical practitioner recommends CBT. SSRI (Selective Seratonin Reuptake Inhibitors) medications are the most common medications prescribed for those with compulsive hoarding (Steketee and Frost, 2013). Examples of SSRI are venlafaxine and paroxetine, which the sufferer normally takes high amounts of for a minimum of three months. CBT is a common treatment for OCD as trials that apply conventional CBT methods also apply to hoarding disorder. However, reports of responses to CBT by compulsive hoarders reveal poor responses and success rates (Brauer et al., 2011). Alternatively, intensive CBT with a skilled therapist in the course of an extended period can help alleviate hoarding disorder. Physicians often administer CBT for compulsive hoarders in six sessions. A third but uncommon treatment option for compulsive hoarding is intervention. Overall interventions for OCD include EBP (Evidence-Based Practice) treatments and regimens, which are also applicable in the treatment of hoarding disorder. EBP and regimens can be in the form of therapy strategies and medications. The latest EBP treatments tackle a crucial but generally under-studied psychological health issue like hoarding disorder that physicians are not ready to treat (Muroff et al., 2011). EBP treatment methods are special and path breaking in the sense that they are manual-based treatments. EBP treatments further measure the intensity of hoarding amongst suffers to accomplish three key outcomes: knowledge expansion, skill attainment and devotion, and involvement in and gratification with

The Impact of Japanese American Internment in the US Essay Example for Free

The Impact of Japanese American Internment in the US Essay The internment of hundred of thousands of Japanese Americans during World War II is one of infamous blotches in the United States’ experience with racial discrimination and human and civil rights violations. Although less discussed in the history books than the country’s fight against discriminatory practices against the African Americans, the incarceration of the Japanese Americans, nevertheless, has tainted the nation with guilt. The reason for this is that the incarceration did not have profound effects on the positive outcome of the war. Instead, it only meant the alienation and the violation of the members of a certain race that the US government judged with sweeping generalization as the enemy. The impact on the Japanese Americans was definitely negative. They had to bear the harshness of living in substandard conditions and, worse of all, the racial prejudice that they suffered from the eyes of the American public. On the other hand, the stigma was felt and continues to be felt by American society itself. The internment has been considered as another shameful chapter in the history of a nation that prides itself of being a promoter of freedom, democracy, and civil rights. The arrival of Japanese into the country had been occurring a century before World War II. The more significant increase in migration however occurred in the 1890’s. Before Pearl Harbor was bombed, the single devastating event that prompted the US to got war against Japan, government statistics already confirmed that there was nearly 200,000 people who were either born in Japan or were with Japanese ancestry. The US mainland, particularly the states along the Pacific coast were home to more than 125,000 of these people while the 150,000 were in Hawaii, which was then just a territory of the US. The death toll and the destruction brought about by what was considered as a treacherous act by the Japanese in Pearl Harbor changed the image of the Japanese Americans in the eyes of the Americans. Spurred by the government’s own paranoia over the existence of these people within the country’s backyard, the American public began to treat the Japanese Americans with contempt and distrust. They began to see them as â€Å"American citizens with enemy faces. † (Daniels et al 12) The paranoia was initiated by a government report on the Pearl Harbor attack that came out in January 1942. Penned by US Supreme Court Justice Owen J. Roberts, the report without much evidence alleged that the Japanese Americans in Hawaii spied for the Japanese navy in preparation of the attack. Barely a month after the report came out congress members of the west coast states sent the US president a letter that recommended the immediate evacuation of Japanese Americans in their respective states. As the members of congress made their move, the US Army’s Western Defense Command also sent a memorandum to the Secretary of War that advised the removal every person of Japanese descent from the entire west coast area. In response to both recommendations by the members of the legislature and by the military area high command, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Executive Order 9066 which provided blanket authority to the Secretary of War and all military commanders to implement the recommendations. One part of the memorandum that influenced the President in issuing EO 9066 stated that â€Å"in time of national peril, any reasonable doubt must be resolved in favor of action to preserve the national safety, not for the purpose of punishing those whose liberty may be temporarily affected by such action, but for the purpose of protecting the freedom of the nation, which may be long impaired, if not permanently lost, by non-action. † (The War Relocation Authority) The President and his advisers clearly knew that the internment of the Japanese Americans could gravely affect their basic human rights. Nevertheless, driven by the sense of urgency to protect the country from the enemy, they would rather incarcerate thousands of innocent Japanese American civilians than be at risk from spying activities by a few if there were any proven. The process taken to implement the internment was tainted with violations of the Japanese Americans’ right to privacy. The United States Census Bureau, a department ran by civilians for purely civilian functions, was employed to assist in identifying individuals and families who should be sent to internment. It took a role in spying neighborhoods and gathering information on Japanese Americans. The bureau vehemently denied this role but in 2007, after several decades, this was finally proven. (Minkel) The US government in 1988, under President Ronald Reagan, came out with a legislation of an apology for the internment. It stated that the decisions and actions of the US government regarding the status of the Japanese Americans anchored on â€Å"race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. (100th Congress) As a result of this legislation, the US government paid more that $1. 6 billion to Japanese Americans who were victims of the internment or were heirs of those who suffered it. It was just that, although late by several decades, the US government issued an apology and paid reparations for the Japanese American victims of the mass internment. The sense of alienation and injustice resulting from mandatory evacuations was already painful. Making it even worse, was the sub-human conditions in the internment camps and the separation from their properties and livelihood. The barracks in which the internees, many of these families, were made to live in barracks with barely insulation from the hot or cold weather. Many of the barracks did not have plumbing as well as facilities for cooking. Some of them even had common toilets. Since the barracks were mostly built by civilian contractors who usually made the military’s camps, these were naturally unsuitable for family living. Some of the internment facilities such as the Heart Mountain War Relocation Center in Wyoming may have names that did not actually reflect the living conditions of the internees. In fact, the Heart Mountain facility actually appeared like a concentration camp with a â€Å"barbed-wire-surrounded enclave, un-partitioned toilets, cots for beds, and a budget of 45 cents daily per capita for food rations. † (Myer) The mandatory evacuation was done hastily, with the military employed to enforce it. Due to such short notice, many of the internees were not able to prepare enough food and clothing for their stay in the camp. Herded by the military into mass transport systems, they were not informed of their respective destinations or the location of their assigned camps. Because of this, they were not able to bring clothes suitable for the climates in which their camps were. A great number had to make do with the thin clothing usually worn in California as they struggle with the harsh winters in Wyoming. Most of the internees consequently lost valuable properties due to the limits of properties that could be brought to the camps. Japanese Americans who had stable employment were naturally forced to leave their jobs permanently. The Japanese Americans were treated unequally. Although they all lived under the same subhuman conditions of the internment camps, the nissei or those who were born in the US and were granted citizenship and their children were give preferential treatment. On the other hand, the nikkei, who were immigrants from Japan and who did not hold US citizenship, were treated with suspicion by the authorities heading the military zones of which the Pacific coast was subdivided. Stricter rules were also applied to them while they were in the camps. As a consequence of their incarceration, Japanese American children experienced difficulties in their studies. Although basic education was still provided in the camps, the system it employed was not only meant to teach children the necessary academic subjects. Education was also made as a channel for anti-Japanese war propaganda. The camp schools were not conducive to learning. There were very few books, teaching aids, and schools supplies for the students to use. Heating was also quite poor, making the children vulnerable to sicknesses. However, what made the educational system worse then was that it embedded shame and hatred for being of Japanese descent. The effect of the daily dose of war propaganda that they experience was such that â€Å"once in a while a child would confide timidly about not wanting to go to school- ashamed of being Japanese in front of his teachers who read every morning from a newspaper about the horrible Japanese soldiers and how fine American soldiers were fighting and winning. (Hirabayashi 45) The traditional way of bringing up families was destroyed by the internment. Parents found it difficult to discipline their children because the living arrangements in the barracks did not allow them so. If they insist on raising their voices while scolding their children, they would certainly annoy their neighbors with whom they share a common thin wall. Because of this, â€Å"the nissei children, for their part, often ate with their peers in the mess hall and roamed around the camp in packs, thus further escaping the influence of their elders. (O’Brien Fugita 62) As are result of this, it was common for internment camps to have problems with juvenile delinquency. Experiencing the difficulties of living in the internment camps had a great impact on Japanese Americans in the duration of World War II. However, it was not the certain degree of depravation that they encountered that was serious enough for them. It was the psychological effect of the incarceration that was more overwhelming. Internment camp administrators admitted that they observed many Japanese Americans showed signs of depression. They also observed that the feelings of insecurity and helplessness were prevalent in the camps’ population. On the other hand, there was quite a number who expressed apprehensions of living outside the camps and be with mainstream society. The reason for this was that they knew of the rabid anti-Japanese propaganda being spread around and accepted by Americans. They were afraid of integrating themselves in a society that might still consider them as enemies and suffer worse racial discrimination in the end. The internment, therefore, only embedded in them fear and hatred against themselves or against other races. After the war, Japanese American internees were released into mainstream society. They tried living as normal as they once lived before the internment but many of them found it difficult to recover. The no longer have the shops, farms, and jobs which were their sources of living. Opportunities of regaining these were bleak as the general population still tended to treat them with contempt. While before they share the same fate as the African Americans as victims of racial discrimination, after the war, even the African Americans tended to treat them as a lesser race. Several years after, adults who were then young boys and girls in the internment camps still experienced episodes of depression. A former child internee wrote that even after all those decades, there were still times when remembered his experience in an internment camp, as well as the â€Å"feeling of isolation and abandonment. (Tateishi 130) Aside from these depressing memories that former internees continue to suffer, they also suffered confusion of their racial and national identity, especially the nissei. Mary Matsuda Gruenewald, another former child internee, remembered a time when she was made to do a Japanese dance inside the camp; â€Å"vulnerability and fragility exposed my old confusion: Am I Japanese or am I American in this barbed-wire camp, about to perform a Japanese dance? † (Looking Like the Enemy 69) The impact is still experienced by Japanese Americans of this generation. They still â€Å"have trouble feeling at home in their adopted country. † (Alfaro 206) They still fear the possibility that the people of other races upon seeing them would remember them as enemies who had the chance of partaking the opportunities offered in the US. Majority of the American public still has to know the truth about the internment of Japanese Americans. This sad part of history should have a positive impact on society, making the people more vigilant against various forms of racism.

The Impact of Leadership on Business

The Impact of Leadership on Business This essay will discuss the impact of leadership on businesses. Leadership concepts can be categorised into three main theories. Transactional leadership which is mainly applied in a relatively stable situation, Transformational leadership which can be well used in an atmosphere where big changes have happened and contextual leadership which is used in a constantly changing and chaotic situation. Therefore the main difference is the environment within they function. Good and effective leadership has many details which are going to be described trough appropriate academic theories. Leadership has many aspects such as attitude towards objectives and operations or representation of the company. All of these aspects link together in order to achieve competitive advantage. Probably the most important factor is the influence of leadership on other members of the business, particularly on the followers. The main body of the essay will investigate how leaders behaviour and attitude navigates the company trough controlling employees. There are many opinions about which extent leadership describes a pattern of behaviour, a bundle of personal characteristics or its role fulfilled in a group. This part of the essay will give a better understanding of these criteria, however it must be pointed out that there is not a perfect answer for that, because of the waste number of academic arguments on this topic. In its essence, leadership in an organizational role involves (1) establishing a clear vision, (2) sharing (communicating) that vision with others so that they will follow willingly, (3) providing the information, knowledge, and methods to realize that vision, and (4) coordinating and balancing the conflicting interests of all members or stakeholders. A leader comes to the forefront in case of crisis, and is able to think and act in creative ways in difficult situations. Unlike management, leadership flows from the core of a personality and cannot be taught, although it may be learnt and may be enhanced through coac hing or mentoring. (www.businessdictionary.com) The popular view is that it does matter who is in charge, leadership quality determines the performance of the group and poor group performance can be overcome by leadership. A group of people is capable of working on their on, but only in a limited extent. Sooner or later one or more individuals will arise from the team because they think differently or imagine the solution in other ways. External factors will also cause the team to change in structure, for example someone has to represent the group and it is also necessary to monitor the tasks, consequently a member has to take responsibility. Without an appointed leader the management would be extremely difficult in an organisation. Living examples are all around us, the parliament, educational institutions, and successful businesses all with appointed leaders. There are some; however who believe in contrary view and argue that it does not matter who is in charge because there is n o real power (Chester Bernard) and that there are few differences between leaders and followers. (Skogdill 1949, Mann 1961) The contingency theory explains that the effectiveness of leadership depends on situation and Pfeffer (1978) argues that the group performance is determined by factors beyond the power of the leader. However the belief in the importance of leadership gives us comforting illusion of control. The theory further explains that there is not a best way to lead and in certain new situations the well developed leadership style may not be successful. This may result in certain very successful leaders become ineffective when they are transplanted into another situation or when the factors around them change. (www.snc.edu) This statement refers to how great leaders who were very successful made wrong decision when the business changed. A good example is Jurgen Schrempp and Robert Eaton, the CEOs of the Daimler-Chrysler merger. Both of them were very effective leaders in t heir own companies. These organisations are famous worldwide so naturally the leaders enjoy a prestigious position which assumes that they are people who really are the best and do not make mistakes. However, when the merger began and the cultural differences occurred, the lack of adaptation of leaders led to failure. Contingency theory does not differ much from situational theory because both assume that there are more options about the right way to do things. Situational leadership assumes that the best action of the leader depends on a range of situational factors. Contingency theory involves a wider view which includes contingent factors about the individuals capability and situational theory focuses on the behaviour of the leader in different situations. (www.changingminds.org) For example in a given situation the good leader will not act in a single style i.e. transactional method but will be able to adjust his behavioural pattern so he makes the most out of the situation. A c lear example is the army where leadership is highly situational complemented by transformational effects. Soldiers without motivation are performing totally differently and just a little lack of performance can lead to total failure, meanwhile the general or whoever is in command needs to adapt to the current situation quickly and reasonably as possible. There are many aspects which will influence the decisions such as the capability and motivation of followers and their relationship with the leader. External factors such as stress and mood will also affect the leaders behaviour. Yukl (1989) distinguishes between six main variables: Subordinate effort: the motivation and actual effort expended. Subordinate ability and role clarity: followers knowing what to do and how to do it. Organization of the work: the structure of the work and utilization of resources. Cooperation and cohesiveness: of the group in working together. Resources and support: the availability of tools, materials, p eople, etc. External coordination: the need to collaborate with other groups. (www.changingmins.org) According to Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) there are three main forces which influence the leaders decisions and actions. These forces are present in both the leader, followers and in the situations which causes the leaders behaviour variable. Liputt and Whites (1943) research on after school club shows that leaders adopted one of three leadership styles which affects the performance of the members of the group. These are: Autocratic, whereas followers are just told what to do and good performance is only achieved when the leader is present. This style involves low morale. Laissez faire style can be described with the phrase just let people get on with it, meaning there are no strict instructions. In this case there is a moderate moral and the performance is generally low and only rises when the leader is absent. The Democratic style provides the best results -high morale and perform ance and it is achieved by involving people in the decisions and encouraging discussions. There are radical examples for these styles out there. One of the simplest is politics. Parliaments in most of the countries operate in a democratic style. People work together and they are equal but a formal leader is present. Whereas in autocratic societies it is inevitable to notice low moral in certain groups and opposition towards autocratic parties. Zaccaro, Fotit and Kenny carried out a research questioning what kinds of people occupy leadership positions: (Four Tasks Model) Do the same people emerge as leaders irrespective of the task, or does it depend on the task? (This leads back to contingency theory.) Participants completed Snyders self monitoring scale and the results show that only individuals who are able to be flexible can emerge as leaders across different tasks. Lord and Alligers meta analysis shows, (1986) (A meta analysis treats all evidence as if it came from a single study using statistical techniques) that same people will not always make good leaders and they will not be always preferred in different groups, same kinds of people will not become leaders in real organisations -but it depends on situation and factors influence perception of leadership. (Contingency theory) Leadership is positively associated with quality of speech, quality of ideas and friendliness (Malloy and Ianowsky 1992) Leaders acquire their positions in different ways. It could happen by seizing power by force, which is called usurpation or it can be inherited. Other ways are election/popular acclaim or appointment. It is essential to investigate how leaders emerge and what kinds of people become successful in this position. One of the theories discussing this topic is the Great Man Theory. It assumes that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Leaders are born and not made and great leaders will arise when there is a great need. (www.changingminds.org) Studies on leadership in the past examined individuals who were already great leaders. There were almost always from aristocracy because it was difficult for lower class people to emerge amongst the ranks of society. However there are exceptions such as Robin Hood. He represented a very appealing organisational vision and he gained a waste number of followers via communicating the right policies. He created a very successful organisation by advertising his company values, so successful that even the present formal authority which represents for example a big competitor company had troubles gaining market share. This suggests that the quality of leadership is indeed what wins in business. The notion that great men would arise in the time of need often bare mystical aspects and it was easy to justify by mentioning historical characters such us Churchill or Jesus. Many studies discuss which kind of personalities are the best suited for leadership positions. Leaders are generally good in handling people but this does not necessary mean being friendly over the top. Keeping a bit of distance can keep up the respect and authority. While leaders, especially transformational ones tend to care a lot about the feelings of their followers, it does not mean that they would not be task oriented. They are indeed achievement focused but they realise the importance of filling up followers with enthusiasm in order work together towards the vision. The work of Hua Gu ofeng represents (leader of China for a perioid after of Maos death) real transformational leadership. He himself did not take credit for his work that caused fundamental changes in the governance of the nation but instead aimed to influence many others to work towards his vision. The Trait Theory assumes that People are born with inherited traits. Some traits are particularly suited to leadership. People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits. (www.12manage.com) There are several researches about these traits, usually studying great and successful leaders. According to McCall and Lombardo (1983), there are four main traits and Stogdill (1974) summarised the typical traits and skills a good leader probably possesses. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Emotional stability and composure People with these characteristics are able to handle stress, they are self confident, organised and cooperative. A leader should be adaptable to situations, learn from their mistakes instead of covering them up. Good interpersonal skills are a requirement; the leaders manner of speech has to be diplomatic, fluent, intelligent and able to persuade others. It is essential to have knowledge about many areas, to be assertive and reactive to social situations and be a ble to take responsibility. It is undeniable that leadership skills can be coached and an individual can learn to become a better leader and some argue that situational factors are much more important then inherited characteristics. An interesting study about twins who were separated at birth however reveals that there are far more genetically inherited traits then previously supposed. Another interesting fact that many historical leaders lived with some handicap that they had to overcome. It could be traumatic childhood or reading problems or just being relatively short compared to others. There are very well known examples such as Hitler or Napoleon. According to Bales (1950) leadership has two key roles and one individual can not occupy both. Task specialist persons offer opinions and give directions in task oriented aspects of group life, and socio emotional persons respond and pay attention to feelings of other group members. According to the Contingency theory leadership effectiveness depends on situation. Fiedler (1965) differentiates between three contingencies: The first is about the quality of leader-member relation, the second is task clarity and the last one speaks about the amount of power the leader has. Combinations of these contingencies determine which side is most effective. According to Tetlock (1979) the behaviour of the leader is critical does the leader encourage open discussion or not? Group decision making involves two main aspects: The risky shift: groups tend to recommend risky alternative rather then the individuals. Polarization: tendency for groups to make decision that are more extreme than the indivi dual members initial decision in the direction favoured by the mean. Polarization has four aspects: social comparison, persuasive arguments, self categorisation and repeated attitude expression. Sanders and Barens Social comparison model: Comparing behaviour and opinions with thoughts of others in order to establish correct (socially approved) way of thinking. People are influenced by information that supports their decision and thus become more extreme in their view. This is called persuasive arguments. (Burnstein and Vinokur) When talking about Transformational leadership, various theories overlap both operationally and conceptually. Bass Transformational Leadership Theory assumes that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Awareness of task importance motivates people and a focus on the team or organization produces better work. Others like Burns argues that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Association with a higher moral position is motivating and will result in people following a leader who promotes this. Working collaboratively is better than working individually. (www.changingminds.org) He describes transformational leadership as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾a process where leaders and followers engage in a mutual process of raising one another to higher levels of morality and motivation.' In general transformational leadership assumes that individuals will follow inspiring people. Someone with a vision and passion can reach goals and it is possible to achieve great things with enthusiasm. A good example is Mahatma Gandhi. He satisfied the needs of his fo llowers, while remaining loyal to a higher purpose instead of using his position to seize power. His visions about a greater good and not about himself were passed on to many of his followers. To work under a transformational leader may be a very good experience because such leaders are interested in success of others and they carry out their job utilising a great deal of energy. The first thing transformational leaders begin with is to develop a clear vision and plan the future which will motivate potential followers. Selling the vision is the second most important factor. This takes commitment and some people need more time to join but many individuals follow radical visions quickly. Therefore a transformational leader will use every opportunity to convince others to follow and these aspects all contribute towards winning in business. The leader has to be very careful who he trusts and in creating trust and personal integrity is critical because they are not only representing the vision but selling themselves as well. Looking forward on the way may be differ, some leaders already know the right path and simple needs others to follow, some do not have a developed plan but are willing to explore possibilities towards success. The important fact is to make progress and to accept occasional failures. The transformational leader who has a developed vision knows the direction and will be satisfied as long as progress is being made. Transformational leaders will want to represent their group and are always visible. This is the last stage during the development of the vision. They are acting as a role model by their actions, showing how their followers should behave. They also put constant effort into delegating and motivating their inferiors and listening to their opinions. According to Bass charisma is important but not sufficient. Leaders with such attribute will influence the followers emotions and cause identification with the leader. Bass also notes that authentic transformational leadership has moral aspects. These are Idealized influence, Inspirational motivation, Intellectual stimulation, Individualized consideration, moreover The moral character of the leader, The ethical values embedded in the leaders vision, articulation, and program (which followers either embrace or reject), The morality of the processes of social ethical choice and action that leaders and followers engage in and collectively pursue. Their commitment encourages their followers to go on even when questions arise about the possibility of the fulfilment of the vision. If people are demoralised their efforts will eventually decrease causing the business to loose or to give advantage to its competitors. Methods of sustaining motivation include several techniques such as use of cultural symbolism of the company or ceremonies. According to Burns the usage of these motivational tools (social and spiritual values) is very useful because it gives people the feeling of being connected to the higher purpose giving their work a meaning and identity to themselves. Little changes and acknowledgement of peoples performance give them the feeling of significance and enha nce their progress. The transitional leader has to keep a good balance between his attentions to actions which contribute towards progress and to constantly cultivate the mental state of their followers. They believe that success is being achieved trough commitment and they are naturally people oriented. Burns opinion is that transactional leadership is less effective because it involves selfish concerns. By appealing to social values people are encouraged to work together. Burns also clearly differentiates between transformational and transactional approach. The characteristics of transactional leadership will be explained in the next paragraph in more detail. Transformational leaders aim to constantly transform the organisation and this transformation naturally has an effect on the people in it. They might be transformed in a way as well, maybe to be like the leader himself. Bass emphasizes the way leaders transform their followers: Increases the followers task importance and valu es, influence them that instead of their own interest keep the organisational goal in front of them and activating their higher-order needs. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure Charismatic Leaders, who succeed through a belief in themselves rather than a belief in others. (www.changingminds.org) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾In contrast to Burns, who sees transformational leadership as being inextricably linked with higher order values, Bass sees it as amoral, and attributed transformational skills to people such as Adolf Hitler and Jim Jones. This paragraph aims to give an insight into transactional Leadership. The transactional style assumes that followers are encouraged by reward and motivated by punishment. It also argues that if clear commands are present then it will enchance the operation on social systems. When speaking about employees doing their job their also have to accept their managers as authority and that they role and purpose is to carry out the tasks their supervisors betrust them. This already starts when the potential employees sign their contracts whereby they are provided salary in return for their subordination. The typical transactional leader gives clear instructions to their subordinates whereas hes expressing what is expected to do in order to to fullfill their role and thus acquiring their rewards. Naturally it leads to disciplinary action in case of unsatisfying performance. These punisment measures are not always mentioned but employees usually know these formal systems. When the subordinate r ecevies his task, he is considered fully responsible of it and expected to be able to do it. In a sitation when things are not going according to plan, it is going to be the subordinates responsibility and fault. This will attract punishment measurements. Transactional leaders often do not pay attention when something operates as defined even if subordinates exceed their normal performance. However these situtations require extra appreciation to keep the moral of the subordinates up, to reward their extra effort in their work, because in the opposite case they will not feel that they should work with extra enthausism in the future. Transactional leadership does have many limitations but, however being a working method it is often used. When differentiating between management and leadership it is undoubtedly closer to management. There are several limitations in this approach as it only takes into account the rational follower who is driven by money and reward with a predictable beha viour. However it is not as simple to describe peoples behaviour because there are emotional and social factors. Behaviourism is what supports this leadership style but it has to be emphasized that in an economic situation where there is a need for skill and demand for employees this leadership styles would be often insufficient. It is essential that we differentiate between Leadership and Management. Often people use these notions interchangeably however there are major differences which need to be adressed. The main difference is how leaders and managers motivate people. Managers become leaders as well if there is a need to follow a path which is different form usual or something new. People who are inferior to a manager are called subordinates and there is a formal authority present. Naturally there are levels of power which is called seniority. On the other hand, leaders have followers who may be subordinates in case they are managers but following is a voluntary behaviour and thus formal authorial control needs to be given up. To win in business there has to be cooperation between management and leadership. It is truth that the aspects are different but both are essential. Leadership vision and strategy becomes the real achievement if it is managed effectively (Mullins) If within an organisation there is good leadership present it still requires an effective management team to carry out the objectives. It servers as a pillar and without it the result will be inefficient. On the other hand a good management team can not get proper feedback and directions without effective leadership. These aspects of the business need to work cooperatively and to achieve competitive gain a combination between skilled leadership and competent management is required. (Kotter 1990) We have discussed transactional and transnational style already and generally we can apply these theories when distinguishing between managers and leaders. As described, managers bear with authority and their subordinates carry out task as ordered and in return expect an agreed reward. Managers work for a company and usually do not make fundamental decisions. They are getting payed to work within à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾tight constraints of time and money so it is natural that they expect the same working style from their subordinate s. Thus this is a transactional approach. However when leading people something more is needed than financial credit because followers have to want to follow you and perhaps go into certain situations they would not risk otherwise. Leaders have to inspire followers and appeal to them enough to make them believe in the goal. The power of this can be tremendous. A good example is Alexander the Great who was able to convince his warlords to be loyal for decades in his campaigns. This may happen trough a charismatic, transformaional style only when enough appreciation and attention is given. Leaders who have strong charisma often find that people will follow them and their ambitions because it does not only give them financial benefit but also has a positve effect on their lifes and personalities. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾They are always good with people, and quiet styles that give credit to others (and take blame on themselves) are very effective at creating the loyalty that great leaders engend er. A different aspect is the attitude towards risky decisions and and new methods. Leaders generally investigate these ways in order to improve the business and constantly look out for opportunities. They consider it part of their job to encounter problems and come up with new and better solutions. In contrast managers are risk aware and they stick to well working procedures and rules. In the always competitive world of businesses organisations need to constantly focus on improvement and change. Given the challenges which occur because of the competing companies over the market, the factor of leadership is very important. To complete the estimated mission and to make out the most of employee abilities trough the companys vision, effective leadership is necessary. Leadership is a force which manages organisational procedures and coordinates the employees to achieve the companys objectives. The actions of the leadership represent the organisation itself, motivate followers and encourage them to work in accordance of various ethics and values. To win in business coordination of the followers is fundamental because they are the core of the operation functions. Therefore a good relationship between leaders and followers is essential to achieve a good performance.

temperature on the activity of liver

temperature on the activity of liver Introduction: Catalase is a common enzyme found in living and it acts as a protective mechanism for delicate biochemical machinery of cells. The enzyme catalyzes the exothermic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. 2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2 Hydrogen Peroxide is a by product produced by many living organisms during the process of metabolism. Hydrogen Peroxide is a very toxic substance (a power oxidizing agent) to cells and must be broken down in order to protect the cells from subsequent damage. Aim: The aim of the experiment is to investigate the effect of varying temperature has on the rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction. The focused reaction is the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide with the enzyme catalyze. The presence of catalase can be demonstrated by dropping a small piece of fresh liver tissue into dilute hydrogen peroxide solution. In this experiment, pieces of liver tissue will be put into different temperatures of water for 5 minutes. After that the liver tissues will be placed into separate solutions of hydrogen peroxide and the amount of oxygen gas produced in a minute will be measured using a gas syringe. Hypothesis: Temperature is a measurement of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. More specifically, it is a measure of kinetic energy in a sample of matter. On a molecular level, temperature is the result of motion of particles which make up a substance. As the temperature increases, the motion also increases. The motion may be due to external energy applied to the particle of internal energy from the vibration of the particle. As temperature is increased, molecules have increased active energy and reactions between them and the probability that the particles will collide with each other will also be greater, this increasing the rate of reaction. In chemical reactions, for every 10 °C rise in temperature, the rate of reaction approximately doubles. This property is known as the temperature coefficient of a chemical reaction. However in a enzyme catalyzed reaction the effect of temperature is more complex, for proteins change shape by heat. There are many factors that can affect the structure of a protein such as temperature and ph. When a protein is exposed to heat, it causes the atoms to vibrate violently, breaking and disturbing bonds within the protein, therefore changing the chemical characteristics of the protein. I hypothesize that as the temperature of the water bath that the liver tissue is exposed increases; the amount of oxygen gas liberated will also increase up. I believe that there will be an optimum temperature for the enzyme and going pass the optimum level will cause a drastic decrease in enzyme activity (less oxygen gas will be produced). Since catalase is found in almost all living things, including humans, I predict that the optimum temperature for catalase will be Variables: Independent Variable Temperature of water bath liver tissue is placed In ( °C) Dependant Variable Volume of oxygen produced in a minute (ml/min) Controlled Variable Concentration of the Hydrogen Peroxide Volume of Hydrogen Peroxide Mass of liver tissue The concentration of hydrogen peroxide must be kept constant because according to the Collision Theory proposed by Max Trautz and William Lewis in 1916 and 1918, increasing the concentration, increases the chances of particles hitting each other. The volume of hydrogen peroxide should also be kept constant. Increasing the volume of hydrogen peroxide increase the substrate concentration and thus increasing the rate of reaction. Finally the mass of liver tissue should also be kept constant to try control the amount of enzyme molecules present. Increasing the number of enzymes means there are more active sites present and substrate molecules do not have to â€Å"queue up† for access to an active site. Ultimately increasing enzyme concentration can also result in an increase in rate of reaction therefore the mass of the liver tissue should also be controlled. Equipment: Equipment Quantity Notes Digital Stop Watch 1 Thermometer 1  ± 0.5 °C Digital Balance to two decimal places 1  ± 0.01g Conical Flask 7 250ml Beaker 1 500ml (for water bath) Gas Delivery Tube 1 Gas Syringe 1  ±0.5ml Retort stand 1 Clamp 1 Boss 1 Bench Mat 2 Safety Goggles 1 Deionized Water Bottle 1 Packet of Ice 1 Used for temperature below 30 °C Matches 1 Used to light Bunsen Burner Chemicals -Dilute Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 1 Concentration (2M) Volume (800ml) Safety Note: Eye protection should be worn at all times If liquid gets into eye, flood the eye with a gentle running tap for 10 minutes and seek medical attention If hydrogen peroxide is spilt in the lab, cover it with mineral absorbent. Dilute with water and wash liquid. Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a dark brown bottle and care must be taken when removing the cap as it is possible that pressure may have built up inside it. Method: Draw up a suitable table or tables to record the results. Carefully cut 7 pieces of cow liver tissue using a knife and a cutting mat. Weigh each piece of liver tissue carefully on the electric balance. Make sure each liver tissue weighs roughly around 0.5 grams. Place each liver tissue into a separate boiling tube and add 40ml of deionized water to each boiling tube once the liver tissue is situated at the bottom of the boiling tube. Place the heating mat on the table with the tripod on top of the heating mat. Gently place the gauze on the tripod. Once this is done, place the beaker on the tripod and slowly heat up the water with a Bunsen burner. Place a boiling tube with a liver tissue sample into the water and put a thermometer in the tube. Heat the beaker until liver sample solution reaches 70 °C. Measure temperature of water with a thermometer. After that, carefully measure out 100ml of hydrogen peroxide with a measuring cylinder and transfer the solution to a 250ml conical flask. Connect one end of the gas delivery tube to the gas syringe and the other to the conical flask Remove the liver tissue from the boiling tube with a pair of tweezers and place it into the conical flask with the hydrogen peroxide. Quickly cork the conical flask once the liver tissue is dropped into the solution of hydrogen peroxide. Beginning timing the time once the liver tissue touches the hydrogen peroxide solution. Stop the stop watch after 1 minute and record the amount of gas produced. Read off the gas syringe. When the reading is taken, remove the cork and dispose of the hydrogen peroxide in the chemical waste container. Repeat the above steps until data points from 10 °C to 70 °C are recorded.. For readings below 30 °C, cool the liver tissue sample with an ice bath. Diagram: Results: Table of Results Volume of Gas Produced in a Minute (ml) Temperature ( °C) Trial 1  ±0.5ml Trial 2  ±0.5ml Trial 3  ±0.5ml Average ±1 ml 20 32.0 33.0 35.0 33 30 40.0 36.0 41.0 39 40 45.0 47.0 50.0 47 50 54.0 52.0 54.0 53 60 63.0 60.0 65.0 63 70 43.0 37.0 40.0 40 80 4.0 2.0 4.0 3 Table 1.0 Raw Data Table 1.1 Qualitative Observations Temperature ( °C) Observations 20 Effervescene, gentle bubbling in solution 30 Effervescene, gentle bubbling in solution 40 Greater effervescence, more bubbling in solution 50 Vigorous effervescence and bubbling 60 Violent effervescene, violent liberation of gas, bubbling in solution 70 Effervescene, gentle bubbling in solution 80 Bubbling in solution Graph 1.0 Temperature and the Amount of Oxygen Liberated from Liver Tissue Sample Graph 1.0 The graph above shows the relationship between the temperature of the water bath the liver tissue sample was put it and the amount of oxygen gas liberated from the sample after dropping it in dilute hydrogen peroxide in 1 minute. The graph clearing shows that as the temperature increases, the amount of gas also increases up to 60 °C. From 60 °C onwards, the amount of oxygen gas produced decreases drastically and there is a downward slope of the curve. Discussion: From the data obtained, there is an increase of oxygen produced as the temperature of the water bath increases. This trend however only applies to the data points from 20-60 °C. At 70 °C however, there is a significant drop in the amount of oxygen gas produced and at 80 °C, the amount of oxygen gas produced is less than 5ml. From the graph, the relationship is clearly represented. Up to about 60 °C the amount of oxygen gas produced increases and ten-degree rise in temperature is accompanied by 6-7ml increases in oxygen gas produced. The amount of oxygen gas produced decrease at high temperatures as shown from 70-80 °C. So as the temperature rises, the amount of enzyme progressively decreases and the amount of gas produced is less. As a result of these two effects of heat on enzyme, there is an apparent temperature for an enzyme. Using the graph, the optimum temperature of catalase is approximately at 60 °C. The properties of a protein greatly depends on its three dimensional shape of the molecule. Exposure to heat causes the atoms to vibrate violently and this can cause bonds within the protein between different amino acid to break, resulting in a loss of the proteins biological properties. This is known as denaturation of a protein. Heating causes a proteins biological properties to change such as optical rotation, shape of active site and bonding. The active site of the enzyme is what defines the enzyme. If the active site changes, the substrate molecules will no longer fit the active site of the enzyme. This is shown in the diagram below. A proteins stability depends primary on the hydrophobic effects and to a lesser extent, by the interactions between polar residues and by other types of bonding. There are four levels of protein structure each playing a significant in the stability of the protein. The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acid residues attached by peptide linkages. Proteins differ in the variety, number and the order if their constituent amino acids. Changes is just one specific amino acid in the sequence of a protein can alter a proteins property. The secondary structure of a protein develops when parts of the polypeptide chain take up a particular shape. The most common shapes are either coiling to form ÃŽ ± helixes or into ÃŽ ² sheets. The tertiary structure of a protein is the distinctive and precise structure, unique to that specific protein. This is usually the result of further folding and interactions within the molecule. The shape is held together permanently by four differ ent types of bonds: hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl and ketone functional groups, Van der Waals forces between neighboring atoms, disulphide bonds between two cysteine side chains and ionic bonds between oppositely charged ions. The stability of a protein is dependant of the balance of these three structures. Altering the balance of forces that maintains the native conformation of the protein will lead to denaturation. Conclusion: The hypothesis put forth before the experiment was correct. As the temperature of the water bath that the liver tissue is exposed increases; the amount of oxygen gas liberated will also increase up to a certain level. That level would be the optimum temperature of the enzyme and the optimum temperature of catalase deduced from the experiment is approximately 60 °C. Pass the optimum temperature, the amount of oxygen gas produced drastically decreases as the enzyme is starting to denature. At 80 °C, the enzyme is almost fully denatured and only a small amount of oxygen gas is produced. The literature value for the optimum temperature of catalase in human is about 37 °C which is the body temperature of a typical human being. The liver sample was taken from a cow and both cows and humans are able to regulate their own temperature. From this we can deduce that the optimum temperature of catalase for a cow should be roughly similar to a humans and somewhere around 37 -40 °C. The op timum temperature obtained from the experiment is 60 °C, this suggests that there may have been deviations or variations within the data. Limitation to Experiment: There are several limitations to our experiment to the experiment. One of the main limitations was controlling the temperature of the water baths. The temperature began to drop gradually once the boil tubes were placed into the beaker. This may have caused deviation and variations within the data. Another limitation was that the experiment was only repeated 3 times and there may still be room for anomalies and errors. Evaluation: As long as the temperature of the water baths were kept constant and the amount of gas produced was measured and read correctly, a good approximation of the optimum temperature of catalase in a cow can be found. However there are several key improvements that can be made. When the liver tissues were cut a lot was wasted and some of it got stuck to the spatula and to the top of the test tube. To compact the problem in the near future, the liver tissues stuck onto spatula could be washed off using a tiny amount of water or shook gently to try remove some of the liver tissue. The method for collected the oxygen gas could also have been improved. Some gas was lost due during the time it took me to insert the bung into the test tube. To minimize the amount of gas lost, have a partner put the bung on for you while you drop the liver tissue into the measuring cylinder. The temperature of the water baths started to drop after a few minutes and this may have lead to some slight deviation with in the data. In future make sure that the temperature of the water bath does not change too significantly. A slight modification would be to cover the beakers with a lid to prevent air from escaping. Another problem that arose during the experiment was keeping the temperatures of the water baths constant during tests and between trials. The problem was that different temperatures of liver samples were tested and it wouldnt be feasible to use a electronically controlled water bath to perform each test. The result was that a Bunsen burner was used but this creates several problems. It was extremely difficult to get exact temperatures and maintain them throughout the experiment. In future, the use of a heating plate would be more practical so as to prevent drastic changes in temperatures. To improve the experiment it may be better to use a solution of catalase rather than a liver as a source of catalase. By using a solution, the concentration and volume could be controlled and would be the whole experiment into a fairer test. Overall the results obtained have helped support the hypothesis put forth before the experiment. Finally the experiment could have been repeated a few more times so that a better average could be drawn from the data, resulting in a more reliable and accurate conclusion. References Clegg, C. J. (2007). Biology for the IB Diploma. London: Hodder Murray. Ophardt, C. E. (2003). Denaturation of Proteins. Retrieved January 3, 2009, from Elnhurst College Web site: http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/568denaturation.html Roberts, M. B. (1986). Biology a functional approach (4th ed.). Canada: Nelson. Voet, D. J., Voet, J. G., Pratt, C. W. (2008). Principles of Biochemistry. NJ: Jon Wiley Sons, Inc.